Parrot Diseases - Avian Diseases

Parrot Diseases - Avian Diseases


A Comprehensive list of the most common Parrot Diseases. All parrot diseases require professional help to both identify and cure.

Please do consult your Vet if you suspect any Illness with your parrot.

Parrot Disease you wish to Research

Psittacosis Disease See Avian Chlamydia below

Pacheco Disease in Parrots - PVD

Psittacine Beak and Feather Disease - PBFD

Feather Plucking in Parrots

Avian Salmonella

Escherichia coli - E. coli

Avian Tuberculosis

Avian Chlamydi
Avian Polyomavirus
Proventricular Dilation Disease - PDD
More interesting reading:-
Parrot and Bird Feather Anatomy
Feather Plucking
Parrot Biting
Avian Pacheco PVD
Information kindly supplied by www.avianbiotech.co.uk


Description:
Pacheco's disease - This disease is caused by a number of closely related members of the herpesviridae. Herpesviruses are 120 to 220 nm in diameter and their genome has a double stranded DNA structure. Replication of the virus occurs in the nucleus of a cell. These viruses primarily infect lymphatic tissue (B or T cells), skin (epithelial cells) and nerve cells.


PDV was first recognized in Brazil where aviculturalists began seeing birds dying only a few days after becoming ill. The virus can start shedding in the feces and nasal discharge of an infected bird in as little as 3-7 days after infection. Considered highly contagious , PDV can spread rapidly through an aviary. Often the first sign that the disease is present is when a new bird is introduced to an aviary and healthy birds begin mysteriously dying. Pacheco's disease is often fatal and affects psittacines of all ages. New World psittacines seem to be more susceptible to the disease than Old World psittacines.



Transmission:

Transmission of PDV is generally through infected feces and nasal discharge. PDV remains remarkably stable outside the host body as a dust or aerosol. This dust or aerosol contaminates the air that is then inhaled by another possible host. Contaminated surfaces, food, and drinking water may also contribute to the spread of the disease. Birds can be asymptomatic carriers of Pacheco's virus. Some believe that any bird that has survived an outbreak of the disease should be considered as a possible carrier. PDV can be reactivated when the bird is under stress such as during breeding, loss of mate, or change and environmental changes. Once it is reactivated the virus is shed in large numbers in the feces of the infected bird.



Symptoms:

Symptoms include lethargy, diarrhea, ruffled feathers, sinusitis, anorexia, conjunctivitis, and tremors in the neck, wing and legs.

Fecal material may become discolored with urates becoming green indicating possible liver damage has occurred. Birds generally die from massive liver necrosis characterized by an enlarged liver, spleen and kidneys. However, some birds die suddenly with no specific or observable symptoms.

Seemingly healthy birds often die quickly from Pacheco's disease. Generally stress associated with relocation, breeding, loss of mate or climate changes can activate the virus and result in activation of the disease and it's symptoms as well as shedding large numbers of the virus in the feces.

Prevention:
Isolate all birds shedding PDV. Disinfect all contaminated surfaces with an oxidizer such as chlorine bleach (as Pacheco's virus is resistant to many disinfectants, alcohol does not work because it is not an oxidizer). It is also important to replace all air filters and clean vents and fan blades.


A killed virus vaccine is available and can be given in a series of two injections, 4 weeks apart (yearly booster shots are required). Some species, such as cockatoos and Eclectus parrots, have had vaccination reactions such as granulomas and paralysis. Additionally, the vaccine may not protect against all forms of PDV. Only birds with high risk of exposure, such as pet store birds, should be vaccinated.
Quarantine all new birds for 30-60 days and use PCR testing to determine whether or not birds are infected. Isolate birds who have been exposed to Pacheco's virus.



Treatment:
Acyclovir is effective against some strains of Pacheco's but may cause kidney damage. Acyclovir works best when treatment is started before symptoms appear.


Diagnosis:
PCR and sequence testing for specific PDV DNA. Histopathology.



Sample:
In live birds please submit both a blood sample and a cloacal swab sample for each bird.


The Virus can be isolated from tissue samples of the liver, spleen or kidney submitted in a sterile container.
Environmental testing using swabs of aviaries, countertops, fans,
air-filters, nest-boxes, etc. is extremely effective when in determining the presence of Pacheco's virus DNA in the environment.



Handling:
Prior to shipping samples should be stored at 4 C. (refrigerator). Samples must be shipped in a padded envelope or box. Samples may be sent by regular mail, but overnight is recommended.


Psittacine Beak and Feather Disease (PBFD)
Information kindly supplied by www.avianbiotech.co.uk

Description
Psittacine Beak and Feather Disease - The virus causing this disease is a member of the Circoviridae. The molecular structure of the genome of the virus is roughly a 2,000 base, circular, single stranded DNA.
PBFD virus has a strong resemblance to Porcine Circovirus as well as to a number of plant viruses such as the Banana Bungy virus.

The disease is thought to be specific for psittacines and all psittacine species should be considered susceptible. Parrots known to be particularly affected by PBFD include, but are not limited to, Cockatoos, Macaws African Grey Parrots, Ringneck parakeets, Eclectus Parrots, Lovebirds.

Causes fatal infections, primarily in young birds. Older birds may overcome the disease with few lasting affects.Some believe that these surviving birds become carriers able to shed the disease at a later date.
Others believe that a percentage of birds are able to eradicate the disease from their system leaving them with a natural immunity that can be passed on to their offspring.

The virus that causes PBFD can also affect the liver, brain, and immune system causing diminished resistance to infections. Consequently premature death usually occurs from these secondary bacterial, fungal, parasitic, or viral infections.


Transmission
Transmission of the virus from one individual to another is primarily through direct contact, inhalation or ingestion of aerosols, crop-feeding, infected fecal material, and feather dust. The virus can also be transmitted via contaminated surfaces such as bird carriers, feeding formula, utensils, food dishes, clothing, and nesting materials. The viral particles, if not destroyed can remain viable in the environment for months, long after the infected bird is gone.

Symptoms
Symptoms include irreversible loss of feathers, shedding of developing feathers, development of abnormal feathers, new pinched feathers, and loss of powder down. Other possible symptoms include overgrown or abnormal beak,
symmetrical lesions on the beak and occasionally nails.
Immunosuppression,rapid weight loss, and depression are also possible in later stages of the disease.

Secondary viral, fungal, bacterial or parasitic infections often occursas a result of diminished immunity caused by a PBFD viral infection. Additional symptoms not mentioned above including elevated white cell counts are generally due to secondary infections and may not be directly related to PBFD virus infections.


Prevention
Strict isolation of all diseased birds to halt the the spread of the disease. DNA testing of all birds of susceptible species to rule out latent infection. DNA testing of aviary equipment and environment to test for possible contamination.


Treatment
No known treatment. Experimental vaccines are being developed.


Diagnosis
Skin biopsy, surgical biopsy of feather and shaft, or PCR testing of blood, swab, and feather samples.

PBFD should be considered in any bird suffering from abnormal feather loss or development. A biopsy of the abnormal feathers including the calimus (shaft) of the feather can be examined for signs of virus. However, since the PBFD virus does not affect all feathers simultaneously this method of evaluating a sample may have a high degree of error. Additionally, birds with PBFD can have normal feathers and the PCR test is the most effective method available for detecting the virus in birds before feather lesions develop.

Some birds infected with the virus, test positive, but never show clinical signs. Other birds which test positive may develop an immune response sufficient enough to fight off the infection and test negative after 30-90 days. Therefore, it is recommended to re-test all PBFD positive birds 60-90 days after the initial testing was completed. If the second sample remains positive, the bird should be considered permanently infected and can be expected to show clinical symptoms of the disease.


Sample
To test an individual bird a whole blood sample is recommended in conjunction with a cloacal swab or feathers (especially abnormal or suspicious-looking feathers) when possible. If the sample tests positive the bird should be placed in quarantine and re-tested after 4-6 weeks. If the bird tests negative the second time a third test after 4-6 weeks is recommended.

Post-mortem samples include liver, spleen, kidney, feather samples in a sterile container; postmortem swabs may also be submitted.

Environmental testing using swabs of aviaries, countertops, fans, air-filters, nest-boxes, etc. is extremely effective in determining the presence of PBFD DNA in the environment.
*It is recommenced to submit both a whole blood and cloacal swab sample for analysis when possible.


Handling:
Prior to shipping samples should be stored at 4 C. (refrigerator). Samples must be shipped in a padded envelope or box. Samples may be sent by regular mail, but overnight is recommended.


Feather Plucking
Information kindly supplied by www.parrotcare.com


Most parrot owners who have a parrot with feather plucking problems find the condition extremely distressing not only for the bird but also for themselves. There is a feeling of guilt that somehow they are not providing there parrot with what he needs to maintain physical and mental health.

Commitment to solving the problem by the owner is very important and even then it may be a long process. Once feather plucking has started it means the parrot has had a problem for much longer than the manifestation of the symptoms i.e. visual feather plucking. I would like to quote from an recent article by an eminent Parrot Vet. "The single most significant medical cause of feather plucking in pet birds is an inadequate diet.

A report showed that up to 90% of all sick birds taken to the vets were suffering from "primary nutritional deficiencies" This is a very poor reflection on our parrot nutrition, and is an issue which needs to be addressed." The parrot diet recommended by Parrotcare is based on 30 years experience of breeding and keeping pet birds with great success and where feather plucking has been eliminated. The products sold in the diets are used at Parrotcare [ We don't sell any product unless they are tried with success over a sustain period of time!]




Your parrot needs to see a veterinary surgeon so that she can be checked over regarding her skin problem.

The causes of feather plucking or loss are:

o Boredom and/or neurosis. This is similar to human's biting their fingernails and this is the commonest reason for psittacine birds to loose their feathers
o Poor quality feathers due to malnutrition, poor husbandry or hormonal imbalance
o Poor quality feathers due to malnutrition, poor husbandry or hormonal imbalance
o Inflammation of the follicles from a bacterial or fungal infection
o Feather mites. These are rare
o Damaged feathers where the bird is kept in accommodation that is too small
o Stress or fault lines where the barbules don't hook together. This is usually due to nutritional deficiencies
o Moulting puts any bird under severe nutritional and physiological stress, so the diet should be tailored to the specific needs at the time
o 'Psittacine beak and feather syndrome'. Affected birds show progressive deterioration in the quantity and quality of the feathers. The clinical abnormalities are due to a problem with the growth of the feathers, and the cause is possibly due to a viral infection. Often a secondary bacterial infection can be fatal
o 'French moult'.In the UK, this is where the feather replacement is slower than normal. It may be due to an excess of Vitamin A. there is no specific treatment, but diets containing high levels of vitamin A should be avoided but the diet should be of a high nutritional value
o Skin parasites, such as fleas, lice and ticks are fairly rare but can cause skin irritation

Parrots are very intelligent animals and they are thought to have the same level of intelligence as a five-year-old child. It is therefore very important that they get mental stimulation, as the commonest cause of feather plucking is boredom. Is the parrot left alone for long periods of time? If so, make sure that whenever she's left you have the video, TV or radio on. Make sure there are plenty of toys for your parrot to play with. For example, pieces of suspended chain, bells or keys, taking care that the leg bands do not get caught in the open links, are interesting. Blocks of hardwood, bark covered branches from native British hardwoods or fruit trees provide mental stimulation.

Also make sure there is enough space for the parrot if it is kept in a cage. Many parrot cages are very near the necessary minimum. The cage must be at least big enough to allow the bird to fully extend their wings and the tail should also be well clear of the floor when the bird is perched.


Salmonella
Information kindly supplied by www.avianbiotech.co.uk


Description
Salmonella - Salmonella species are gram negative, aerobic, rod-shaped, zoonotic bacteria that can infect people, birds, reptiles, and other animals. This genus includes approximately 2000 species divided into five subgenera. Of the five subgenera, two subgenera, subgenus I and subgenus III, can be found in birds. Subgenus I contains the species of salmonella that most commonly infect birds. Subgenus III, contains the species Salmonella arizonae and arizona hinshawii, which have occasionally been reported in birds, particularly those that are in contact with, or close proximity to reptiles.


Most vertebrates can be infected with Salmonella however, the host susceptibility and development of carrier states vary widely among species. Free-ranging birds can be sub-clinical carriers and serve as a reservoir of bacteria.
In addition to free-ranging birds, flies, rats, and other vermins may also serve as vectors of Salmonella.

The incidence of various Salmonella species seems to vary with geographic location and the types of food consumed. Imported birds and animals may serve to introduce different Salmonella species to the local area that can cause new and devastating outbreaks.


Transmission
Transmission of this organism from one host to another is primarily through the air. The bacteria is shed from an infected bird in the nasal and or ocular secretions, fecal material, and feather dust. The organism remains stable outside the host body and dries as a dusty substance. This dust or aerosol contaminates the air that is then inhaled by another possible host.

Susceptibility as well as the amount of contamination determine whether or not the new host becomes infected with the disease. Other forms of transmission include infected hens feeding their young with contaminated crop contents, as well as contaminated feed and drinking water. Vertical transmission (transmission of the bacteria to and egg) can occur, subsequently chicks hatch and spread salmonella by direct contact.

The embryo may die if bacteria levels become to high.
The disease has a greater chance of spreading in overcrowded conditions, stale air environments, nest-boxes, and brooders. Pet shops, bird marts, and quarantine stations are also high risk areas.



Symptoms
General symptoms of Salmonella include lethargy, anorexia, and diarrhea. In chronic cases, arthritis (particularly in pigeons) may be present. With high dose infections excessive thirst, conjunctivitis along with indications of liver, spleen, kidney or heart damage can occur. Some individual avian species have unique clinical symptoms. Outbreaks in lories (Loriidae) are associated with an acute disease and high flock mortality. African Grey Parrots are also very susceptible, but they develop a more chronic disease showing symptoms such as mucus discharge from the beak/nasal area, arthritis, excessive thirst, and dermatitis. Droppings are colored a sulphur yellowish green which is very much a diagnostic sign for this microorganism.


Prevention
Proper hygiene is the best way to prevent outbreaks of Salmonella. Effective control of flies, rodents and other vermin are also essential eliminate in preventing Salmonella outbreaks. Strains of Salmonella present in companion birds are generally not considered to be of any danger to a healthy human being.

They may however, threaten infants, the elderly, or those with immunosuppressive diseases. Humans carrying Salmonella can infect their companion birds. Such human-to-animal interactions have been shown to occur, especially with African Greys, Amazons, Cockatoos and Macaws.


Treatment
Treatment of salmonella infections are more successful if the precise species is first determined. Once the particular species of salmonella has been identified, the appropriate antibiotic can be administered. The frequently found Salmonella strains are sensitive to many commonly available antibiotics, but strains from free ranging birds have varying degrees of resistance.
ANTIBIOTICS:

Kanamycin: Dosage: .01 mgl to one gram of body weight intramuscularly twice daily.

Gentamycin: Dosage: .01 mg to one gram of body weight intramuscularly once daily or 25 mg. to 120 ml of drinking water orally.

Trimethoprim/Sulfamethoxazole Suspension: Dosage .002 ml to one gram of body weight orally twice daily.

Sodium Sulfachiorpridazine Powder: Dosage ¼ tsp to 120 ml drinking water

ANTIDIARRHEALS:

Pepto Bismol: Coats the intestinal tract. Helps to form a firmer stool. Dosage 2-3 drops in the mouth, 3 times daily.

Kaopectate: Daolin and pectin coat the intestinal tract and form a firmer stool. Dosage 3 drops in the mouth 3 times daily.
*Please check with the manufacturer of the specific antibiotic for additional information before treatment is started. Allays consult with your local avian veterinarian for additional information before treating individuals.



Diagnosis
A confirmed diagnosis requires isolation and identification of the Salmonella species. Most strains of Salmonella are motile, or capable of moving spontaneously, and grow on common media. However these assays provide a low degree of identity. PCR and sequence assays are also available, and results of these assays proved more precise information as to the type of Salmonella strain involved.


Sample
Samples from suspected birds are collected with cloacal swabs. Any mucus discharge from the eyes and nasal area should also be collected on a second swab. Swabs must be sterile and transported in a correct medium.Environmental swabs can also be submitted to help evaluate the environment.


Handling
Prior to shipping samples should be stored at 4 C. Samples must be shipped overnight in a transport medium

Escherichia coli (E. coli)
Information kindly supplied by www.avianbiotech.co.uk


Description

Escherichia coli - commonly referred to as E. coli, this Gram-negative bacterium is a member of the Enterobacteriacae species. While many harmless or beneficial strains of E. coli occur widely in nature, including the intestinal tracts of humans and other vertebrates, birds and reptiles pathogenic types are a frequent cause of both enteric and urogenital tract infections. Several different types of pathogenic E. coli are capable of causing disease.

A particularly dangerous type is referred to as enterohemorrhagic E. coli, or EHEC. The first such strain was identified in the United States in 1982. Since then, EHEC strains have been associated with food-borne outbreaks traced to undercooked hamburgers, unpasteurized apple juice or cider, salad, salami, and unpasteurized milk. EHEC strains produce toxins that have effects similar to those produced by bacteria of the Shigella genus. These enterotoxins can damage the lining of the intestine, cause anemia, stomach cramps and bloody diarrhea, and hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS) leading to kidney failure. In North America, HUS is the most common cause of acute kidney failure in children.

In Birds

Birds, especially psittacines, are less dependent on E. coli and rely on a more Gram-positive gut flora. However, softbills such as the passerines (finches, jays, songbirds), columbiforms (pigeons and doves), galliforms (chicken-like birds), raptors (hawks, falcons, owls), and ratites (emus and ostriches), have a high incidence of normal Gram-negative gut flora of many varieties including E. coli.

The distribution of E. coli in psittacines varies one one species to another. It is less common in Amazons and macaws, sometimes found in greys, and common in cockatoos and Eclectus. In fact, E. coli can compose as much as 30 percent of the gut flora of some psittacines and others like cockatiels and budgies carry somewhat less.



Transmission:
The bacteria is shed from an infected bird in the fecal material as well as nasal and or ocular secretions. The organism remains stable outside the host body and may dry as a dusty substance.

This dust contaminates the air in the form of aerosols. These aerosols are then inhaled by another possible host. Susceptibility as well as the amount of contamination determine whether or not the new host becomes infected with the disease. Other forms of transmission include infected hens feeding their young with contaminated crop contents, as well as contaminated feed and drinking water. Vertical transmission (transmission of the bacteria to and egg) can occur, subsequently chicks hatch and spread salmonella by direct contact. The embryo may die if bacteria levels become to high.

The disease has a greater chance of spreading in overcrowded conditions, stale air environments, nest-boxes, and brooders. Pet shops, bird marts, and quarantine stations are also high risk areas.


Symptoms:
Ruffled feathers - diarrhea - listlessness - weakness - shivering - vent picking The severity of the illness can depend on the age of the bird, the virulence of the bacteria, the immune system, stress and the degree of contamination. Affected birds can also become carriers showing no disease symptoms.

These carriers can spread the disease to their offspring and may later become ill as a result of stress. Baby birds, with less developed immune systems, are more susceptible to disease and frequently die. Chronic infections in adult birds may form abscesses, fail to hatch eggs, have changes in eating habits and may intermittently pass contaminating bacteria.


Prevention:
Keep water and feed bowls free of fecal material. Identify carrier birds and properly treat them. Careful disposal of contaminated materials. Minimize Stress in the aviary. People working with contaminated material should practice good hygiene.


Treatment:
Broad spectrum antibiotics should only be started when a sample for culturing has been taken. Oral and injected antibiotics should be given simultaneously in severe cases. The sulfa drugs are good to use orally. Kanamycin and Gentamycin are usually effective by injection. When Gentamycin is used do not allow dehydration. Dehydration may cause toxicity to occur.

If necessary, the antibiotics can be changed after sensitivity results are known.If diarrhea is severe Kaopectate or Pepto Bismal may be given orally with 2 to 3 drops in mouth three times per day. Water consumption should be monitored to prevent dehydration. Maintain a stress free environment.

An incubator or a heating pad under the cage should be used to maintain the temperature between 85 and 90 degrees. Lacking an incubator if the heating pad alone won't maintain the temperature, place the cage in a box and the box on the heating pad with a thermometer in the back of the box in order to monitor temperature.
ANTIBIOTICS:

Kanamycin: Dosage: .01 mgl to one gram of body weight intramuscularly twice daily.

Gentamycin: Dosage: .01 mg to one gram of body weight intramuscularly once daily or 25 mg. to 120 ml of drinking water orally.

Trimethoprim/Sulfamethoxazole Suspension: Dosage .002 ml to one gram of body weight orally twice daily.

Sodium Sulfachiorpridazine Powder: Dosage ¼ tsp to 120 ml drinking water

ANTIDIARRHEALS:

Pepto Bismol: Coats the intestinal tract. Helps to form a firmer stool. Dosage 2-3 drops in the mouth, 3 times daily.

Kaopectate: Daolin and pectin coat the intestinal tract and form a firmer stool. Dosage 3 drops in the mouth 3 times daily.

*Please check with the manufacturer of the specific antibiotic for additional information before treatment is started. Allays consult with your local avian veterinarian for additional information before treating individuals.

Diagnosis:
For best cultures are taken directly from the cloaca rather than from a fecal sample. If the bird dies, intestinal material, liver, blood and spleen can also be cultured.

Anytime E. coli is found in an internal culture other than the gastrointestinal tract, it should be considered pathogenic. E. coli can proliferate uncontrollably outside its normal home in the gut. However, some strains of E. coli can cause gastrointestinal disease. So, even in the gut, the bacterium may be pathogenic.
Sensitivity testing should be performed since enteric bacteria are often resistant to several antibiotics.


Sample:
E. coli is usually detected from a cloacal (vent) culture. It is best to take the culture directly from the cloaca rather than from a fecal sample. A fecal sample may be contaminated by another bird or animal, such as a rodent.



Handling:
Prior to shipping samples should be stored at 4 C. Samples must be shipped overnight in a transport medium.



Avian Tuberculosis (Mycobacterium avium) PDD Syndrome
Information kindly supplied by www.avianbiotech.co.uk

Description
Mycobacterium (ATB) - Straight or slightly curved, non motile rods, 0.2­0.6 x 1.0 µm. Although difficult to stain, rods are Gram positive. After staining with basic fuchsin, cells resist decolorization with acidic­ethanol and are therefore termed acid­alcohol­fast bacilli (AFB). This characteristic is due to the high level of lipid in mycobacterial cell walls.


There are seventy­one validly named species of Mycobacterium and an additional three sub­species The principal pathogens in the genus are M. bovis, M. leprae and M. tuberculosis but, in all, thirty­two species are known to be pathogenic to humans or animals. Species of Mycobacteria other than those above are often referred to as "atypical mycobacteria".

The most commonly encountered pathogens among the atypical mycobacteria are species of the Mycobacterium avium complex. The M. avium complex (MAC) its considered to contain M. avium, M. avium subspecies paratuberculosis, M. avium subspecies silvaticum and M. intracellulare. However, poorly identified strains which show some similarity to M. avium are also frequently, and incorrectly, allocated to the complex. There are over 20 recognized serotypes within the M. avium complex.

Most birds including parrots, parakeets, cranes, sparrows, starling, emus, waterfowl raptors and softbills, have shown susceptibly to M. avium. It is believed that favorable conditions virtually all species of birds are susceptible to avian tuberculosis. It is most prevalent where there is a high population density, such as in zoos, or collections of birds.



Transmission:
M. avium infections are considered to be "open" meaning infected birds consistently shed large amounts of organism into the environment.
M. avium is transmitted by ingestion and inhalation of aerosolized infectious organisms from feces. Incubation in birds is weeks to years. Oral ingestion of food and water contaminated with feces is the most common method of infection.

Once ingested, the organism spreads throughout the bird's body and is shed in large numbers in the feces. If the bacterium is inhaled, pulmonary lesions may develop. Skin invasion may occur as well. The spread via infected eggs can occur, but it is not common.

The transmission of M. avium from human to human has not been convincingly demonstrated and all infections are thought to be of environmental origin.



Symptoms:
In some cases sudden death can occur in a bird with normal body weight and outer appearance. However, in most cases a bird with TB will develop symptoms such as progressive weight loss in spite of a good appetite, depression, diarrhea, increased thirst, and respiratory difficulty. A decreased in egg production often occurs in birds that were laying eggs. Once the disease appears, it is virtually impossible to eradicate it. Eventual death is the usual outcome

Birds with the intestinal form often present with chronic wasting disease - and Proventricular Dilatation Syndrome is often one of the suspected possible diseases. In addition to weight loss, depression, diarrhea, increased urination (polyuria), abdominal distention, lameness and difficulty in breathing may be present.



Prevention:
Preventing M. avium is best done by minimize stress and overcrowding; Provide proper ventilation; Prevent malnutrition with a proper diet. Controlling an M. avium outbreak in zoos, bird gardens and private aviaries can be especially difficult to eradicate. New additions to the aviary should be quarantined for a minimum of 1-2 months. Testing new additions for M. avium is also a good way to prevent possible outbreaks.



Treatment:
All M. avium isolates that have been tested up to now are totally resistant to the antituberculous drugs currently used in humans ATB is extremely difficult to treat, and in many cases treatment is not considered a viable option.



Diagnosis:
It is difficult and lengthy process to culture the M. avium organism in the lab. An elevated White blood cell count may be present, as well as a low red blood cell count. It is sometimes possible to find bacteria in the feces by staining procedures. This however, is not specific because other acid-fast bacteria that are not M. avium may also be present.

At ABI we use two techniques for testing M. avium. PCR assays which detect the actual disease causing organism, and ELISA assays which detect specific antibodies for M. avium. PCR assays are considered to be the fastest most sensitive method for detecting M. avium while ELISA assays help determine exposure to M. avium.



Sample:
At postmortem, biopsy of the liver, digestive tract, spleen and lungs. Is one of the best ways to diagnose the disease. For general screening whole blood, serum, vent and throat swabs can be used. It is best to submit both blood and swab samples for testing.



Handling:
Prior to shipping samples should be stored at 4 C. Samples must be shipped overnight in a transport medium or as a dry swab.


Avian Chlamydia
Information kindly supplied by www.avianbiotech.co.uk


Description:
Chlamydia psittaci - also referred to as Psittacosis, Parrot Fever or chlamydiosis. The word Psittacosis comes from the Greek word Psittakos, meaning parrot. Chlamydia are gram negative, spherical, (0.4-0.6 micron diameter), intracellular parasites
that people sometimes referred to as "energy parasites" because they use ATP (a crucial energy containing metabolite) produced by the host cell, hence, the term "energy parasites.


Incubation periods in caged birds vary from days to weeks and longer. Most commonly this period is approximately 3 to 10 days.

Latent infections are common and active disease may occur several years after exposure. The incubation period of this disease is however difficult to assess due to these chronically infected birds that develop persistent, asymptomatic infections.

In birds, C. psittaci may manifest itself as an upper respiratory infection with nasal, and or ocular discharge, diarrhea, or a combination of all three. In some cases, birds may be infected but show no signs. These cases are of concern because these birds may become carriers and shed the organism.


A major concern with C. psittaci is the zoonotic potential of the organism. A zoonotic disease is an infection which can be transmitted from animals to humans. C. psittaci is also one of the major causes of infectious abortion in sheep and cattle.
*C. psittaci is related to Chlamydia trachomatis, the most common human STD, and Chlamydia pneumonia, a cause of human pneumonia.



Transmission:
Transmission of this organism from one host to another is primarily through the air. The bacteria is shed from an infected bird in the nasal and or ocular secretions, fecal material, and feather dust. The organism remains remarkably stable outside the host body and dries as a dusty substance.

This dust or aerosol contaminates the air that is then inhaled by another possible host. Susceptibility as well as the amount of contamination determine whether or not the new host becomes infected with the disease. Vertical transmission through the egg has been shown in domesticated ducks.
The disease has a greater chance of spreading in overcrowded conditions, stale air environments, nest-boxes, and brooders. Pet shops, bird marts, and quarantine stations are also high risk areas.

*Transmission of the Chlamydial organism from birds to humans has been confirmed in a number of cases. Although psittacosis infection in humans is rare it is potentially dangerous for persons who are sick, elderly, immunosuppressed (e.g., HIV patients) or pregnant. These people should consult their doctor for more information concerning Chlamydia psittaci.


Symptoms:
In young birds clinical sings can include rough plumage, low body temperature, tremor, lethargy, conjunctivitis, dyspnea, emaciation, sinusitis, yellow to greenish droppings or grayish watery droppings may also be displayed.
Adult birds may develop symptoms such as tremors, lethargy, ruffled feathers, progressive weight loss, greenish diarrhea, occasional conjunctivitis, and high levels of urates in droppings. Birds infected with Chlamydia may develop one or several of these symptoms as the disease progresses.


Clinical changes associated with a Chlamydia infection include WBC elevated 2-3 times, Hct decreased 25-40%, SGOT elevated at least 2-3 times the normal levels, LDH elevated by at least 20%, and AST elevated by at least 2-3 times the normal limit. Other, more slight changes can occur in blood hematology and chemistry.
*In humans: abrupt onset of fever, chills, headache, loss of appetite, shortness of breath, malaise, myalgia, and conjunctivitis can occur as a result of a Chlamydia infection.




Prevention:

Preventing the organism from entering your facility is the best method of prevention. Test and quarantine all new birds before entering them in your aviary; avoid bird marts and bird fares where the disease can spread. Commonsense hygiene includes the removal of fecal material, and quality air circulation.



Treatment:
Most treatments involve the use of tetracycline and its derivatives such as Vibramycin, Doxycycline, Oxytetracycline. The antibiotic can be given by intravenous or intramuscular injections. Antibiotics can also be given orally or mixed with palatable food.

Treatment periods generally last about 45 days varying slightly depending on the treatment. *Calcium should be withheld because tetracycline binds to calcium. Citric acid in the bird's drinking water can increase the levels of antibiotics in the blood.


*In humans tetracycline and its derivatives are generally an effective treatment for Chlamydia.



Diagnosis:
Fecal analysis, blood analysis, immunoflourescent testing, as well as PCR and nested PCR testing are excellent tool to help determine a Chlamydial infection.



Sample:
When testing individual birds, a whole blood sample is recommended in conjunction with a cloacal and/or throat swab when possible. If the sample tests positive the bird should be placed in quarantine and treatment should be begun immediately.
Postmortem swabs or samples of liver, spleen, or kidney tissue in a sterile container may also be submitted.

Environmental testing using swabs of aviaries, countertops, fans, air-filters, nest-boxes, etc. is extremely effective in determining the presence of Chlamydia psittaci DNA in the environment.



Handling:
Prior to shipping samples should be stored at 4 C. (refrigerator). Samples must be shipped in a padded envelope or box. Samples may be sent by regular mail, but overnight is recommended.

Avian Polyomavirus
Information kindly supplied by www.avianbiotech.co.uk


Description
Polyomavirus - This virus, also referred to as Budgerigar Fledgling Disease is a member of the papovavirus family. Polyoma virus is a 40-50 nm diameter in size, containing a double-stranded DNA genome of approximately 5000 basepairs.

This pathogen is considered one of the most significant threats to cage birds around the world. This highly infectious disease effects most if not all parrot species. Polyoma seems to be most problematic among neonates (young birds) between the ages 14-56 days.

Young birds often die, while adult birds can develop a certain level of immunity. Polyoma is believed to have an incubation period of approximately two weeks or less.


Transmission
The disease can spread from one bird to another via feather dust, feces, aerosols and parental feeding of chicks; direct contact or contact with infected environments (incubators, nest boxes)..


Birds that are infected but do not have obvious signs of infection are often responsible for spreading the virus to an aviary or bird store.

Carrier state maybe possible in adult birds.


Symptoms
Swollen abdomen, depression, loss of appetite, anorexia, weight loss, delayed crop emptying, regurgitation, diarrhea, dehydration, feather abnormalities hemorrhages under the skin, dyspnea, polyuria, ataxia, tremors, paralysis, acute death.

Some birds die without any clinical symptoms. Adult birds may die of secondary infection from bacterial, viral, fungal or parasitic pathogen.


Prevention
Isolate all birds shedding the disease. Disinfect all contaminated surfaces with an oxidizer such as chlorine bleach (Polyoma virus is resistant to many disinfectants).
*Alcohol does not work as it is not an oxidizer.

A vaccine is available, however this option may cost as much as $40-60 per bird: additionally booster shots are required each year and the effectiveness of the vaccine in younger birds is in question.

Quarantine all new birds and use nested primer PCR testing to determine whether or not birds are infected.



Treatment
No Known treatment at this time


Diagnosis
Nested primer PCR testing, and sequence analysis of PDV DNA; histopathology.


Sample
When testing individual birds, a whole blood sample is recommend in conjunction with a cloacal swab when possible. If the sample tests positive, then the bird should be placed in quarantine and re-tested in 4-6 weeks. If the bird tests negative the second time, then a third test is recommended.

Post mortem samples of liver, spleen, or kidney tissue in a sterile container, postmortem swabs may also be submitted.

Environmental testing using swabs of aviaries, countertops, fans,
air-filters, nest-boxes etc. is extremely effective in determining the presence of Polyoma DNA in the environment.

*It is recommenced to submit both a whole blood and cloacal swab sample for analysis when possible.



Handling
Prior to shipping samples should be stored at 4 C. (refrigerator). Samples must be shipped in a padded envelope or box. Samples may be sent by regular mail, but overnight is recommended.


Limitations
Vaccination of birds using a killed virus or DNA vaccine prior to testing does not affect the accuracy of a PCR test.


Proventricular Dilation Disease PDD

PDD (Proventricular Dilation disease)
PDS (Proventricular Dilation Syndrome)
Psittacine Wasting Disease
Macaw Wasting disease

These are some of the names used for this devastating disease, fortunately its still rare in aviaries, and rarer still in single bird homes.


The incubation period for the spread of this disease between birds is still not clear and reports of between a few months to a few years has been indicated.
Thought to be a virus that attacks the Proventricular, central nervous system and sometimes the intestinal tract, its very difficult to make a 100% diagnosis without exploratory surgery.


It can also be confused with other ailments as symptoms are similar, such as mega bacteria, heavy metal poisoning, E. coli, and Candida to name a few, as said before usually surgery (biopsy) of the Proventriculus is required.


This disease mainly infects psittacines, mostly Greys and Macaws but any psittacine is susceptible, symptoms of PDD is usually commenced with regurgitation/vomiting, a lethargic bird, looks generally unwell and passes whole seed in faeces, rapid weight loss, seizures, diarrhoea, and lack of appetite are also indicative.

Treatment of various types have been tried, but has so far only prolonged the life of the bird for a while with the inevitable happening in the end.


Good bio security must take place in aviaries with extended quarantine periods for new additions to prevent this fatal disease entering the aviary.